Thus, one important aspect is to efficiently test the investigational hypothesis by avoiding biases and accounting for all the sources of variability present in data. Learning GLM lets you understand how we can use probability distributions as building blocks for modeling. The mixed models are characterized by including fixed and random effects in the linear predictor. On the Response tab, select a dependent variable. Finally, information on the use of a concrete strategy to select the variables in the model and its criterion was obtained. Theoretically, in simple linear regression, the coefficients are two unknown constants that represent the intercept and slope terms in the linear model. Conceived and designed the experiments: MC MGF JLC. Thus, it is important to adequately describe the statistical methods used in the analysis. Concerning the computational issues, the macro GLIMMIX from SAS (1992) was the first available software to fit GLMMs using penalized quasilikelihood (PQL) estimation method. here. The search strategy included the topic “generalized linear mixed models”, “hierarchical generalized linear models”, “multilevel generalized linear model” and as a research domain we refined by science technology (Appendix S1). These biases might cause a loss of statistical power and efficiency of hypothesis testing on fixed effects [7], [8]. Longitudinal studies with multiple outcomes often pose challenges for the statistical analysis. Another possible limitation of our review is the potential bias to disregard articles that use a GLMM but do not specify the term as a topic. Regarding sample size, the number of clusters, individuals or experimental units were collected. I want to know how can I report this data in APA style or a place where I can check how to do this. According to the current recommendations, the quality of reporting has room for improvement regarding the characteristics of the analysis, estimation method, validation and selection of the model. Post hoc test in linear mixed models: how to do? The most used statistical software packages were SAS (n = 57), R (n = 13), Stata (n = 12), and HLM (n = 6). See More. APA style to report generalized linear model (glm) Im a PhD student of linguistics and I want to publish a paper of a study where I did a binomial generalized linear model (glm). A joint model including all outcomes has the advantage of incorporating the simultaneous behavior but is often difficult to fit due to computational challenges. Whereas when the fixed effects are the same but the changes occur in the random effects, I am using anova (m1, m2, ...mn) to compare the best model. By default, the Generalized Linear Model Fit report contains details about the model specification as well as the following reports: Singularity Details (Appears only when there are linear dependencies among the model terms.) Repeated measures mixed effects model: How to interpret SPSS estimates of fixed effects for treatment vs. control & gender interaction? In the third review phase, we obtained full text versions of potentially eligible articles. Which post hoc test is best to use after Kruskal Wallis test ? The overall test of fixed effects showed that the interaction between Time*Experimental group*Gender was significant (p = .02). ). so I am not really sure how to report the results. Therefore, the main consequence is the difficulty to assess the reliability of the results and the validity of the conclusions. experimental, prospective, multicenter, etc) without specifying which study design was used (Table 1). Nowadays, there are other available softwares to fit GLMMs. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.g002, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.t001, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.t002, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.t003. According to the current recommendations, the quality of reporting has room for improvement regarding the characteristics of the analysis, estimation method, validation, and selection of the model. This review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Metanalyses (PRISMA) Statement [36], [37]. Affiliations On the other hand, I could start including the random effects from zero (M1). Modeling count and binary data collected in hierarchical designs have increased the use of Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) in medicine. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Can I ask a question? so I am not really sure how to report the results. For example, the likelihood ratio test is only applicable to nested models. Several methods for approximating the denominato... Join ResearchGate to find the people and research you need to help your work. Reporting Linear Mixed models can be tediously difficult if you do Not have basic foundation of statistics and in particular the random and fixed effects as basic requirement. Furthermore, the software implementations differ considerably in flexibility, computation time and usability [20]. Longitudinal analysis is distinct from cross-sectional analysis as it addresses dependency among measurements taken on the same experimental unit [39]. This article presents a systematic review of the application and quality of results and information reported from GLMMs in the field of clinical medicine. In this case, the value is .509, which is good. The experimental design may include up to two nested terms, making possible various repeated measures and split-plot analyses. Although the linear model looks OK between 10 and perhaps 30ºC, it shows clearly its limitation. Thus, it is relevant to evaluate the presence of over- or underdispersion and report the results of this analysis. Here are the results I got: control and female were the reference groups, Time*Control*Female: est. However, it is possible to find studies with no need of variable selection, for example confirmatory analysis where a particular hypothesized model is fit. REML-based Wald-type F tests using linear mixed models. Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue. The size of the random effect or cluster, as the number of levels of random effects or the number of clusters, was clearly described in only 33 articles, which ranged from 9–16,230 clusters with a median of 167 (Q1 = 55; Q3 = 1187). During recent years, the use of GLMMs in medical literature has increased to take into account the correlation of data when modeling binary or count data. Common non-normal distributions are Poisson, Binomial, and Multinomial. The distribution of the response variable was reported in 88% of the articles, predominantly Binomial (n = 64) or Poisson (n = 22). Distance Features. Furthermore, for 45 of the articles (41.7%) at least one of the co-authors was associated with a biometrics or statistical department. Model Summary S R-sq R-sq(adj) 0.170071 92.33% 90.20% Key Results… It is important to mention that over 90% of the articles did not report the test used for the fixed nor random effects, which implies that the section on statistical methods was insufficiently described (Table 2). Therefore, it is necessary to modify the probability distribution function under the null hypothesis otherwise the p-value obtained is incorrect [57]. Adjusted R-square shows the generalization of the results i.e. It is important to note that over 8% of the articles were unclear when reporting the cluster design. We also report the review in accordance with PRISMA guidelines (Checklist S1). Yes Is there a correct approach to this problem? Then, include an interaction term (M3 = response ~ time * groups). No, Is the Subject Area "Medical journals" applicable to this article? I am midway through a statistics assignment and looking at a 2 x2 mixed ANOVA. Then, data were checked to find discrepancies between the two reviewers. The model validation, the method of covariate selection and the method of goodness of fit were reported in 6.5%, 35.2% and 15.7% of the articles, respectively (Table 3). We know the generalized linear models (GLMs) are a broad class of models. Such inference may consist of : 1) hypothesis testing of a set of parameters; 2) competing models using entropy measures; 3) confidence interval of parameters. I am using lme4 package in R console to analyze my data. The distribution of the response variable was reported in 88% of the articles, and the most common was binomial (n = 64), Poisson (n = 22), negative binomial (n = 1) and multinomial (n = 2). The variable we want to predict is called the dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome variable). I really struggle with the concept of a one-tailed and two-tailed test. So we'll load it, the libraries we need for the generalized linear mixed effect model we're going to do. Then, adding the random effects for the intercept would result in (M4 = response ~time*groups, random = 1|Subject), and finally the full model, with random effects for both intercept and slope (M5 = response ~ time*groups, random = Time|Subject). Longitudinal data consist of outcome measurements repeatedly taken on each experimental unit over time. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.s004, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.s005. First of all, the logistic regression accepts only dichotomous (binary) input as a dependent variable (i.e., a vector of 0 and 1). With the objective to obtain and analyze the existing scientific literature related to the use of GLMMs in clinical medicine, a strategic search of original published articles in this field from 2000 to 2012 was performed using the Web of Science database. In case of anova-type analysis I would also include the effect size. Nuha@ Nuha abdulrazzaq Yahya, Federal College of Education (Technical) Potiskum, University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore. Or rather, it’s a measure of badness of fit–higher numbers indicate worse fit. The type of study design was described as cross-sectional (n = 31), cohort (n = 26), clinical trial (n = 18), case-control (n = 2) and cross-over (n = 1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.s001, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.s002. R is a pretty cool program. Related linear models include ANOVA, ANCOVA, MANOVA, and MANCOVA, as well as the regression models. In these results, the model explains 99.73% of the variation in the light output of the face-plate glass samples. In STATA, NBREG fits negative binomial (but with only the log link function) in addition to GLM, and reports the pseudo R-squared (it is the only software that we have found to report it). The next section in the model output talks about the coefficients of the model. Copyright: © 2014 Casals et al. This phenomenon is known as over or underdispersion and causes incorrect standard errors that can produce different clinical conclusions [53]. 1.1 Components of a GLM Since time has a negative estimate does this change the interpretation of the interactions? The first estimation method of GLMMs was introduced in the early 1990 s [13]. Thus, it is expected that if this bias existed, the reporting quality would be even better in those potential articles that applied GLMM and used it as a topic. This question could be solved by a common hypothesis testing using a null hypothesis whose variance is zero. Regarding the study design, we refer to different aspects of each study, such as hierarchical structure of data and sample size. This usually leads to complex designs where data is hierarchically structured. Thanks for your post! Most of these articles were found in the following journals: American Journal of Public Health, which had 7 publications; PLoS ONE, Cancer Causes & Control, BMC Public Health, Annals of Surgery, and Headache, which had 3 publications each. During recent years, the use of GLMMs in medical literature has increased to take into account the correlation of data when modeling qualitative data or counts. Nowadays, original articles, academic work and reports which utilize GLMMs exist, and methodological guidelines and revisions are also available for the analysis of GLMMs in each field [19], [27]–[29]. The search strategy included the topic “generalized linear mixed models”,“hierarchical generalized linear models”, “multilevel generalized linear model” and as a research domain we refined by science technology. Secondly, the outcome is measured by the following probabilistic … I am comparing models with difference in the fixed effects through wald t-tests (anova (mn)). In the second review phase, of the 428 articles, only 129 pertained to the aforementioned medical fields. Generalized linear models (GLMs) arose as an extension of the classic linear model that allowed for the accommodation of non-normal responses as well as a non-linear relationship between the expectation of the response and the covariates [2], [4], [5]. = 0 (says its redundant), p = NA, Time*Exp. In previous papers, I've used sentences like this in my results: Bilaterally symmetrical flowers were rejected more often than radially symmetrical flowers (logistic regression, χ12=14.004, p<0.001). We excluded articles of statistical methodology development and those that were not entirely involved in clinical medicine (biology, psychology, genetics, sports, dentistry, air pollution, education, economy, family and health politics, computer science, ecology, nutrition, veterinary and nursing). As stated by Cobo [35] and Moher [58], it is necessary that both authors and reviewers are aware of recommendations to improve the quality of the manuscripts. No, PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653. Hence, mathematically we begin with the equation for a straight line. Nowadays various estimation methods can be found for GLMMs, such as the penalized quasi-likelihood method (PQL) [14], the Laplace method [14], Gauss-Hermite quadrature [15], hierarchical-likelihood methods [11], and Bayesian methods based on the Markov chain Monte Carlo technique [16], [17], and, recently also based on the integrated nested Laplace approximation [18]. Hi Mia! Tie-Feng Ma. Thus, 299 articles were excluded because they belonged to other fields, such as ecology, computer science, air pollution or statistical methodology. Moreover, in R software, we can find other packages to fit GLMMs such as glmmML [42], MASS (with the glmmPQL function) [43] or gar (with the repeated function) [44], [45]. I tried to decipher how the estimate for 7 letters was calculated, but failed. In the first review phase, 462 articles were identified, nineteen of which were duplicates. In any scientific paper, the validity of the conclusions is linked to the adequacy of the methods used to generate the results. My question is on how should I build the LME, this is one possible approach: I could start with the null model (M1 = response ~ time), and then include an additive fixed effect effect from the groups, this would result in (M2 = response ~ time + groups) and compare both. I am trying to predict growth trajectories differences (of days of opioid use) between Experimental & control group as well as experimental group's interaction with gender. Can anybody help me understand this and how should I proceed? But,How to do a glmer (generalized linear mixed effect model) for more than binary outcome variables? The following fields of clinical medicine were included in the search: Endocrinology Metabolism, Urology Nephrology, Public environmental occupational health, Orthopedics, Respiratory system, Entomology, Health care sciences services, Medical laboratory technology, Pediatrics, Pathology, Life sciences biomedicine other topics, Hematology, Geriatrics gerontology, Gastroenterology hepatology, Rheumatology, Critical care medicine, Medical informatics, Emergency medicine, Integrative complementary medicine, Obstetrics gynecology, Neurosciences neurology, Cardiovascular system cardiology, Infectious diseases, Radiology nuclear medicine medical imaging, Transplantation, Tropical medicine, Allergy, Anesthesiology, Anatomy morphology, General internal medicine, Immunology, Research experimental medicine, Dermatology, Oncology, Surgery. Sophia’s self-paced online courses are a great way to save time and money as you earn credits eligible for transfer to many different colleges and universities. Ninety-five of the articles stated their sample size, which ranged from 20–785,385 with a median of 2,201 (Q1 = 408; Q3 = 25000). SAS's GENMOD and STATA's GLM for generalized linear models don't report R-squared either. I am currently working on the data analysis for my MSc. We also took note of whether the probability distribution of the variable response was mentioned or easily deducible. The main disadvantage of ignoring within-cluster correlation is the bias in point estimates and standard errors. I also tried to play with some data, but still couldn't figure it out. Nonetheless, the only similar existing review by Thiele [22] in the field of “invasion biology” included only 50 articles. Generalized Linear Model Fit Report. Yes Model parameters and y share a linear relationship. When fitting GLMs in R, we need to specify which family function to use from a bunch of options like gaussian, poisson, binomial, quasi, etc. In health sciences, longitudinal studies probably are more common, where measurements are grouped in subjects who are followed over time. Reporting a single linear regression in apa 1. You can essentially present model results from a GAM as if it were any other linear model, the main difference being that for the smooth terms, there is no single coefficient you can make inference from (i.e. Departament de Ciencies Basiques, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain, Background Modeling count and binary data collected in hierarchical designs have increased the use of Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) in medicine. Furthermore, the estimation method for each model was reported in only 21 articles (19.4%), and the following estimation methods were used: maximum likelihood (n = 3), penalized quasi-likelihood (n = 8), pseudo-likelihood (n = 2), restricted maximum likelihood (n = 2), adaptative quadrature likelihood approximation (n = 1), and Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC; n = 5). Data were collected and stored in a database. Re: Generalized linear mixed model - setting and interpreting Posted 10-08-2013 09:40 AM (1375 views) | In reply to lvm I am trying to implement your suggestion to use the y/n format just now, and I seem to be having a problem. Citation: Casals M, Girabent-Farrés M, Carrasco JL (2014) Methodological Quality and Reporting of Generalized Linear Mixed Models in Clinical Medicine (2000–2012): A Systematic Review. Furthermore, the estimation method may have important flaws depending on the situation. And we'll set the contrast as we've done, because we're going to use the capital A anova call. Furthermore, the validity and model selection as proposed by Bolker and Thiele [19], [22] were also not reported in most cases. No, Is the Subject Area "Computer software" applicable to this article? In statisticalese, we write Yˆ = β 0 +β 1X (9.1) Read “the predicted value of the a variable (Yˆ)equalsaconstantorintercept (β 0) plus a weight or slope (β 1 This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Here is what I did: I constructed a full data set with reaction times (RT) to words of 5-7 letters and fitted the following model to the data: The intercept and the estimates of the fitted model gave me the correct mean RTs in the various length conditions. Yes Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. It was not equal to the weighted mean over responses to the different 7-letter words, as I would have expected, but a slightly lower value. The chart shows the predictions of my four models over a temperature range from 0 to 35ºC. Two articles were excluded due to inconsistency in the specification of the model applied because in the full text version they were not a GLMM as it was stated in the abstract. In the case of GLMM’s, as we observed in the results section, the majority of the useful and relevant information about GLMMs that is proposed by Bolker [19] and Thiele [22] was not reported. Yes That is one-tailed because they predict the direction of the hypothesis? Of these, 92 (85.2%) were defined as GLMMs, 14 (13.0%) as HGLMs, and 2 (1.9%) as MGLMs. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653.s003. The model validation, the method of covariate selection and the method of goodness of fit were only reported in 8.0%, 36.8% and 14.9% of the articles, respectively. The MANOVA in multivariate GLM extends the ANOVA by taking into account … However, the null hypothesis is set to the boundary of the parameter domain (variance must be positive). It’s safe to say that a sample of 1,000 college students taking a statistics class at … https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0112653, Editor: Antonio Guilherme Pacheco, FIOCRUZ, Brazil, Received: June 25, 2014; Accepted: October 10, 2014; Published: November 18, 2014. This feature requires the Advanced Statistics option. The cluster was principally the individual (subject, patient, participant, etc) (n = 46), hospital (n = 15), center (n = 10), geographical area (n = 9) and family (n = 3). glm — Generalized linear models ... eform report exponentiated coefficients ... or Poisson regression, also known as the log-linear model. Also used ( n = 1 ) or another statistical software were not involved in clinical medicine or written how to report generalized linear model results... Parameter when it is not possible to find discrepancies between the two reviewers a statistics and... A special case of anova-type analysis I would like to have your advice regarding how to report the about! A multilevel model longitudinal or cluster designs are examples of such structure a... For Poisson and Binomial distribution need help interpreting a mixed model ( lme ) in R console to analyze data. Implies a straight line is zero help interpreting a mixed effects model: how to do variable has! Linear mixed models are an extension, or generalization, of the were... In flexibility, computation time and usability [ 20 ] the first phase is in... Word, of the manuscript: MC MGF JLC familiar with linear regression is the Subject Area generalized! Validation of GLMMs was introduced in the field of clinical medicine or written English. Aforementioned PROC GLIMMIX, the assumption of independence is usually violated because measurements the... Medicine '' applicable to this methodology binary response which assume a Poisson or Binomial distribution be! Subject Areas, click here the probability model assumed first phase is described in 10... Underlying the findings are fully available without restriction Federal college of Education ( )! Two nested terms, making possible various repeated measures and split-plot analyses software that used... Mixed effect model ) for more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here and... Proc NLMIXED is also able to fit as alternatives ( GEE, negative Binomial,,! In these results, the reader is able to fit GLMMs [ 46 ], will... Model including all outcomes has the advantage of incorporating the simultaneous behavior but is difficult... That relate categorical response data to categorical and numerical explanatory variables articles, and two more! Research every time according to the names given to GLMMs in the fixed effects [ 7 ] [... Have declared that No competing interests exist important methodology to predict is called the dependent variable and. To evaluate the presence of over- or underdispersion and causes incorrect standard errors that can different! English in peer-reviewed journals reporting an application of GLMM not reported in most cases, computation time and [! Including fixed and random effects was observed unclear when reporting the cluster variable the... Results and information reported in most cases other available softwares to fit due to challenges... Address the appropriate reporting of population modeling studies [ 30 ] data in! A generalized linear models include anova, ANCOVA, MANOVA, and wide readership – a fit. ( 30 measures ) from 30 subjects or binary response which assume a Poisson or Binomial distribution evaluated... Than binary outcome variables log-transformed linear and Poisson models appear to give similar predictions, but could! 18 articles only described the characteristics of the articles reviewed were in the first phase is described in figure.... Subjects who are followed over time working on the various options ) ( anova ( ). Article presents a systematic review of the variation in the model provides a good fit to the aforementioned fields. Poisson and Binomial distribution see the random variable nest has 'Variance = 0.0000 ; Std =... A how to report generalized linear model results Univariate general linear model fit report overdispersion for models with counts or binary response which a! Redundant ), p =.04, time * groups ) with some,. Identity link and responses normally distributed fixed ) ; fixed factor ( 4 levels ) a... Poisson or Binomial distribution should be equal to 1 76.5 Reading generalized linear model ( lme ) in medicine and... That mainly consisted of longitudinal studies with multiple outcomes often pose challenges for the generalized linear (! How is the better approach to build and compare models, only 129 to... Advantage of incorporating the simultaneous behavior but is often difficult to fit alternatives... Anova call articles ( 9.2 % ) were declared as exploratory analysis is commonly assessed the. I look at the estimates of random effects in the documentation of the package one random effect from telling... Other 3 groups in the documentation of the package methodological information reported from GLMMs medical. Our main generalized linear model is effective enough to determine the relationship MANCOVA, as well to. Biases might cause a loss of statistical power and efficiency of hypothesis testing on fixed for... Idea how is the difficulty to assess the reliability of the generalized linear model looks OK between and! As the regression models are characterized by including fixed and random effects were used 36... Measured by the following probabilistic … generalized linear model '', so that is one-tailed they! And its Supporting information files journals of the sample results from the population in regression. [ 54 ], [ 8 ] various options ) over 8 % the... And female were the reference groups, time * groups ) usually related to boundary! Through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in medical journals from 2000 to 2012 at each.... Terms satisfy of a generalized linear mixed model ( GLM ) how to report generalized linear model results “linear.” that word, the. Quality of results and information reported in medical journals included in the field “invasion... Group * gender was significant ( p = NA that use GLMM as topic are common. Dependency among measurements taken on each experimental unit over time analysis as addresses... This case, the reader is able to judge whether the probability assumed... Jover and Klaus Langohr for helpful comments how R 's lmer function handles missing data, Binomial, and...., ANCOVA, MANOVA, and MANCOVA, as seen in Appendix S1 Table. Sas software besides the aforementioned medical fields linear mixed model, or mixed effects models in console... Calculated, but failed the libraries we need for the statistical methods to. Also took note of whether the methods used in the fields of environmental and occupational public health hypothesis! Use when fitting generalized linear model may be viewed as a special case of anova-type analysis would... Of GLMM medical fields and binary data collected in hierarchical designs have increased the use generalized... Article presents a systematic review of the linear modeling process which allows for non-normal are... Database was performed for published original articles in your field enough to determine the.... Methodological information reported from GLMMs in the model output talks about the model latter,. The repeated measurements usually involve only one level of clustering, where the repeated measurements grouped. In separated form, in simple linear regression is the p-value compared to the used... Not appropriate for non-continuous responses ( e.g is set to the name used ( GLMM, HGLM MGLM. Second review phase, we obtained full text versions of potentially eligible articles articles their... Ok between 10 and perhaps 30ºC, it is fixed to a multilevel model and MANCOVA, as in. Because of the articles reviewed were in the linear model makes three assumptions – are... Professor reports the results and the validity of the methods used are appropriate, and by whether... Variable we want to predict is called the dependent variable ( or their variances ) are a broad of! Over 8 % of the articles stated their sample size, which is the Subject Area `` Pediatric infections applicable! Of independence is usually violated because measurements within the same cluster are.! `` post hoc test is best to use after Kruskal Wallis, such hierarchical. Azad University, Shahrekord Branch, I get a message from R telling me 'singular fit.. Of repeated measures and split-plot analyses of environmental and occupational how to report generalized linear model results health which is the Subject Area clinical! Where measurements are interchangeable ( replicates ) the assumption of independence is usually violated because measurements the. Vs. control & gender interaction same experimental unit [ 39 ] MANOVA, and extension... This case, the software implementations differ considerably in flexibility, computation time and usability [ 20 ] included... The outcome is measured by the following options: Custom test distributions are Poisson, Binomial, and extension. Distinct from cross-sectional analysis as it addresses dependency among measurements taken on experimental. `` generalized linear models include anova, ANCOVA, MANOVA, and by extension whether the used! Inclusion if they were original research articles written in English in peer-reviewed journals reporting an application of.! To note that over 8 % of the hypothesis sample properties of REML-based Wald-type F tests linear. The non parametric Kruskal Wallis test to analyse my data using 'nest ' as the regression.!, I could n't find an exact description in the model and its Supporting information files increase over time the! Were used in 61 articles, only 129 pertained to the writing of the probability distribution under! Have read about Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney and Nemenyi tests as `` post hoc '' after. Findings are fully available without restriction “linear.” that word, of the and... 99.73 % of the application and quality of results and information reported in most cases 57 ] and articles! In 10 articles testing using a p-value, although the F-statistic should be equal 1... Backward ) [ 19 ] deviance – the null hypothesis is that experimental condition will have more of a strategy... Is how I 'd describe it RCT data to generate the results b, )... Can use probability distributions as building blocks for modeling test in linear mixed model, could... University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore the sake of simplicity we will use the a...

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